Baking Class - Yeast Breads.

Lewisburg.

Last night I taught my first baking class. Overall, I think it went well. We didn't make too much of a mess; the loaves we baked in class came out well - enough that the students were amazed such simple bread could be so good; and all six students were planning to return today to bake the loaves they'd kneaded last night.

And I have to admit that I was deeply amused as I watched the students attempt kneading for the first time. It's been so long since I learned that I can't remember it, though I do recall it taking years of practice until I stopped using too much flour. There's some learned knack there, I guess.

But, for those who're interested, here's the text of last night's handout:

YEAST BREADS
Baking 101 – Spring 2008

THE BREAD-MAKING PROCESS

Making bread is perhaps the simplest and most forgiving baking process. With a little time and effort, even novice bakers can turn out loaves of homemade breads superior to any you might find in the grocery store. The process is simple and straightforward, often quite forgiving of mistakes and easily adaptable to experimentation. There are as many methods out there as there are breads – and that’s no small number – but as follows is the general method for most western-style yeast breads:

MIXING combines the dry and wet ingredients – the basic four being flour, water, yeast and salt – into a dough. KNEADING works the dough, stretching and organizing the proteins in the wheat flour to develop the gluten network, while also aerating the dough with many tiny bubbles. RISING allows the yeast in the dough to grow and reproduce, producing the carbon dioxide that allows the loaf to rise and various other products of fermentation that change the flavor and texture of the dough. PUNCHING DOWN gently redistributes the yeast cells, their food supply, and the gas bubbles in the dough for the second rise. PROOFING, or the second rise, allows the dough to rise once more in the shape for baking. BAKING causes the loaf to rise dramatically as the water and alcohol in the loaf expand the gas pockets; the starch structure in the loaf absorbs water and gelates; and the bread’s structure sets, starting at the crust and working inward to the center of the loaf. COOLING allows the excess moisture in the loaf to escape while the loaf firms up, making it easier to slice.

FLOUR

There are many different types of flour to choose from when baking. Though breads can be made from almost any grain, only wheat and its closely related cousins are capable of producing gluten, the protein structure that allows a loaf to rise. Some typical flours include:

• All-purpose flour. Like most flours, it is often made from a mixture of different wheats blended to give consistency, particularly in protein content. The bran and germ of the wheat kernel have been removed, leaving mostly starch, about 11-12% protein, and a very small amount of fats, enzymes, and other components. For many types of baking, all-purpose flour does a good, though not always spectacular, job.
  
  
• Bread flour. A high-protein version of all-purpose flour, bread flour contains 12-13% protein, with most of that representing strong gluten proteins. The higher proportion of protein makes for the lighter, chewier loaves of bread. Bread flour can also absorb more water than other flours, which can affect the workability of the dough.
  
  
• Pastry flour. For baked goods that require a soft, tender texture, low-protein (8-9%) pastry flour contains weak gluten proteins and runs less risk of producing a tough dough or batter.
  
  
• Whole wheat flour. With much of the germ and bran still in the flour, whole wheat flour has much more flavor than white flours; however, the fats present will turn rancid in time, making it less shelf stable. Though it has a high proportion of protein, not all of that is gluten, and the germ and bran particles tend to interfere with gluten formation, resulting in denser loaves.
  
  
• Specialty flours. Certain flours work best at specific tasks, such as: durum semolina flour is typically used for pasta making; spelt flour, which contains some different gluten proteins than traditional wheat, is an alternative for some people with wheat intolerance; cake flour, which is heavily treated with chlorine dioxide or chlorine gas, has certain unique characteristics beneficial in cake making; some, like Type 55 and Italian 00, are traditional European blends for flavor and specific characteristics.

These don’t include flours made from other grains, such as barley and rye, or even from starchy vegetables, such as the potato. Each of these different flours has its own unique flavors and characteristics in baking, though they are all alike in that they cannot provide the same ability to rise as wheat flours. A great variety of leavened breads use other grains for a portion of the flour to change the texture and to add flavor.

Note that white flours may be bleached or unbleached. Bleaching merely eliminates the natural pale yellow color of wheat flour that disappears with age. It has no beneficial effect on the quality of the flour.

YEAST

Yeasts are unicellular fungi whose metabolism produces several beneficial by-products. In an unsweetened dough, the yeasts feed on the single- and double-unit sugars in the flour, creating carbon dioxide, alcohol, and a range of various enzymes and other chemicals that develop the distinctly yeasty flavor of leavened bread and improve the strength of the gluten network. A small amount of table sugar in the dough will increase yeast activity, but a large amount will decrease it, as will salt. Temperature also greatly affects the yeast metabolism. They’ll be most active at about 95° F, but develop better flavor and texture while growing more slowly at lower temperatures. Most yeast-risen doughs work best at cool room temperatures, usually between 60° F and 70° F, though an extended stay in the refrigerator can produce an especially delicious bread. Similar results can be achieved by using very small amounts of yeast, and allowing the bread to rise for an extended period of time at room temperature.

There are several different types of yeast available for bread baking. Some are preferable for specific tasks, and they are not necessarily interchangeable in all recipes. The most common forms are:

• Instant yeast. This is the most useful type of yeast for the home baker, and is comprised of dried, dormant yeast cells packed into small rod-like shapes. In this form, they take up water readily, and can be mixed directly with the dry ingredients. It also tends to be more vigorous than other types of dried yeast, and special strains are available for sweet doughs and other yeast-unfriendly environments.
  
  
• Active dry yeast. In the grocery store, this yeast is often found in three-packs of single-use measures. The dry yeast is dormant, but in larger granules than instant yeast, requiring a preliminary soaking in warm water before mixing with other ingredients. Since fewer of the yeast cells in any container are viable, as compared to instant, a larger quantity is needed to achieve the same speed and effect.
  
  
• Cake or compressed yeast. Still moist and alive, this is a block of highly active, and highly perishable, yeast. It requires refrigeration, and must be used quickly, often within a week or two of purchase.
  
  
• Sourdough starter. Unlike the main types of baker’s yeasts, a sourdough starter is a living colony composed of wild yeasts and various strains of bacteria. The effects of the various microorganisms produce a highly flavorful loaf, but slow the bread’s rising and weaken the gluten network. Maintaining a sourdough starter requires regular “feedings” to keep the microorganisms thriving, but it produces breads impossible to replicate with regular yeast.

GLUTEN

Gluten is what gives bread its structure. Essentially long chains of certain wheat proteins, gluten molecules provide the elasticity of bread dough that enables it to capture the carbon dioxide gas created by yeast and expand without falling apart. The chewy crumb of a good European-style loaf is due to gluten, as opposed to the soft, tender texture of a sponge cake. Kneading bread dough helps develop the gluten by stretching and aligning the gluten molecules into a strong network, and the amount of water present will affect how well that network forms. Too little makes for a crumbly texture, while a lot makes for a softer bread. A few ingredients help improve the strength of the gluten network, such as high-protein flour and salt. Others, such as sugar (in large quantities), fats and oils, and acidic ingredients, weaken the gluten to produce softer, more delicate breads.

SHAPES AND OTHER VARIATIONS

Bread can be made into almost any shape imaginable. It can be baked in a pan to control its shape – as can be done for sandwich loaves, or cloverleaf rolls in a muffin pan, or traditional French breads in cloches – or shaped into a relatively free form to cook on a baking stone or a sheet pan. Some breads, such as the traditional Boston brown bread, are traditionally steamed to achieve the proper rise and texture. The size, the shape, and even the desired type of crust on a particular loaf can determine the best way to cook it. As a general rule, smaller breads can cook faster, and at higher temperatures.

Temperature is just one consideration in bread baking. In a standard metal oven, a temperature of 350° F will generally cook a loaf in 45 to 60 minutes, though the crust may remain relatively light-colored. Higher temperatures will enable the bread to cook slightly faster, and brown the crust more thoroughly, but with the risk of scorching the exterior before the interior finishes baking. Many recipes recommend starting breads in a hot oven, around 450° F, for ten to fifteen minutes, then lowering the temperature to finish out the cooking, a process which attempts to reproduce some of the effects of baking in a traditional brick oven. Using a baking stone, or something else with lots of thermal mass, can help moderate the oven temperature and improve bread quality.

Traditional brick ovens, in addition to evenly heating a loaf of bread, also hold in the steam produced as bread bakes. This steam not only assists in transferring heat from the oven to the loaf, but it also provides some extra benefits. During the first six to eight minutes in the oven, a loaf goes through what is called “oven spring,” where the bread rises dramatically; the presence of steam allows the crust to expand without drying out, while also gelating the starch on the surface so that it will brown by the end of baking. Modern ovens do a poor job of keeping steam inside; gas ovens are actively vented to eliminate the steam produced by combustion. Electric ovens do a little better, but it’s an effect worth helping along.

There are a variety of ways to try to keep the oven environment humid. Professional ovens inject steam inside at low pressure to assist in crust formation. Various sources have different recommendations for the home baker. Spraying the hot inner surfaces of the oven with water helps, as can tossing in several ice cubes. A more effective means, if more difficult, is to place a large, ovenproof pan filled with boiling water on the bottom oven rack; if possible, fill it with objects with a lot of surface area, such as rocks or a metal chain, which will help evaporate more water. This produces a reliable source of steam for baking, and can help moderate the oven temperature against the effects of the gas burner or electric element cycling on and off. Still, you should be extremely careful because of the risk of accidentally burning yourself. For one of the simplest and best methods – essentially creating your own little brick oven – see the “No-Knead Bread” recipe.

STORAGE

If you are planning to eat the loaf within a day or two, store it at room temperature in a paper bag or a bread box; this will do the best job of preserving the texture of the crust. Storing bread in a sealed plastic bag will soften the crust and slow the staling process somewhat, but creates a moist enough environment to promote the growth of potentially dangerous molds. For long-term storage, wrap the loaf tightly in plastic or foil and freeze it. Refrigerating bread at temperatures above freezing speeds the staling process by as much as six times.

If a loaf isn’t too old, it can be “refreshed” in the oven and brought back to a state very close to freshly baked. Approximately ten minutes in a 300° F oven reverses some of the effects of staling, making the center of the loaf soft and tender and re-crisping the crust. Popping a slice of bread in the toaster has much the same effect, but with more browning – depending on how you like your toast.

BASIC WHITE BREAD
Makes one 1-½ lb. loaf

INGREDIENTS

• 3 cups bread or all-purpose flour, plus extra as needed
  
• 1 teaspoon instant yeast
  
• 1 Tablespoon kosher salt (or 2 teaspoons granulated salt)
  
• 1-¼ cups water, body temperature

DIRECTIONS

1. In a large bowl, mix together the flour, yeast, and salt until well combined. Add the water, stirring, using just enough to bring the dough together into a cohesive mass; if more is needed, add a tablespoon at a time. Turn out onto a lightly floured board and knead by hand until smooth and elastic, about 10 minutes. Transfer to a lightly oiled bowl, cover loosely with plastic wrap or a cloth, and let rise at room temperature until doubled in size, about 1 to 2 hours.
   
   
2. Turn the dough back out onto a lightly floured board and press it out gently with the heel of your hand. Do this to remove any large air bubbles. Return to the bowl, cover, and let rise another hour.
   
   
3. Shape the loaf as desired; if using a loaf pan or other mold, grease it lightly before placing the dough inside. Cover again and allow to rise until almost doubled, 30 minutes to an hour.
   
   
4. Meanwhile, preheat the oven to 450° F. When the dough is ready, slash the top in several places to allow steam to escape, and slide into the oven. Bake for 15 minutes, then lower the temperature to 350° F to finish cooking. When done, tapping the bottom of the loaf should produce a hollow sound; depending on the shape of the loaf, this may take 30 to 45 minutes.
   
   
5. Allow the bread to cool on a rack for at least 30 minutes. If baked in a pan, remove the loaf from the pan once it is out of the oven.

NOTES

• This recipe can serve as a framework for a great variety of homemade breads. Try experimenting with variations in ingredients, shapes and baking methods to produce a wide range of different breads from essentially the same basic recipe.

NO-KNEAD BREAD
Adapted from the New York Times
Makes one 1-½ lb. loaf

INGREDIENTS

• 3 cups bread or all-purpose flour, plus extra as needed
  
• ¼ teaspoon instant yeast
  
• 1 Tablespoon kosher salt (or 2 teaspoons granulated salt)
  
• 1-5/8 cups water, room temperature
  
• Cornmeal or wheat bran, as needed

DIRECTIONS

1. In a large bowl, combine the flour, yeast and salt. Add the water, and stir until blended; the dough will be shaggy and sticky. Cover the bowl with plastic wrap. Let the dough rest at least 12 hours, preferably about 18, at warm room temperature, about 70 degrees.
   
   
2. The dough is ready when its surface is dotted with bubbles. Lightly flour a work surface and place the dough on it; sprinkle it with a little more flour and fold it over on itself once or twice. Cover loosely with plastic wrap and let rest about 15 minutes.
   
   
3. Using just enough flour to keep the dough from sticking to work surface or to your fingers, gently and quickly shape it into a ball. Generously coat a cotton towel (not terry cloth) with flour, wheat bran or cornmeal; put the dough seam side down on towel and dust with more flour, bran or cornmeal. Cover with another cotton towel and let rise for about 2 hours. When it’s ready, the dough will be more than double in size and will not readily spring back when poked with a finger.
   
   
4. At least a half-hour before dough is ready, heat oven to 450° F. Put a 6- to 8-quart heavy covered pot (cast iron, enamel, Pyrex or ceramic) in the oven as it heats. When the dough is ready, carefully remove the pot from the oven. Slide your hand under the towel and turn the dough over into the pot, seam side up. Shake the pan once or twice if dough is unevenly distributed; it will straighten out as it bakes. Cover with the lid and bake 30 minutes.
   
   
5. Reduce the oven temperature to 425° F, remove the lid, and bake another 20 to 30 minutes, until the loaf is beautifully browned. Cool on a rack.

NOTES

• The lengthy proofing period is essential to this bread, for developing the flavor, texture, and full rise.
  
  
• This recipe adapts well to other flours and grains. For example, exchange up to half of the flour with whole wheat flour, a third with cornmeal, or a fifth with rye flour.

ADDITIONAL REFERENCES FOR GENERAL BAKING:

• Bittman, Mark. How to Cook Everything: Simple Recipes for Great Food. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 1998.
  
  
• Bittman, Mark. “The Minimalist: The Secret of Great Bread: Let Time Do the Work.” The New York Times. 8 Nov. 2006.
  
  
• Brown, Alton. I’m Just Here for More Food. New York: Stewart, Tabori and Chang, 2004.
  
  
• Davidson, Alan. The Oxford Companion to Food. 2nd ed. Ed. Tom Jaine. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2004.
  
  
• Ingram, Christine and Jennie Shapter. The World Encyclopedia of Bread and Bread Making. New York: Hermes House, 2001.
  
  
• McGee, Harold. On Food and Cooking: The Science and Lore of the Kitchen. New York: Scribner, 2004.
  
  
• Rombauer, Irma S., Marion Rombauer Becker, and Ethan Becker. The Joy of Cooking. New York: Scribner, 1997.